Role of education leaders Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Role of education leaders - Essay Example The main functions of the school district are to employ teachers and take corrective actions, solve disciplinary matters and taxation. Maryland is an exception in this case. All schools are controlled by the county. In general, it is possible to distinguish the following forms of control: (1) school district governments; (2) state-dependent school systems; (3) local-dependent school systems and (4) education service agencies (Dembowski 1999). Educational standards and practices are the engine driving the changes public schools are experiencing today. These bodies control schools and establish education standards and procedures. The school district provides qualified teachers, adequate instructional materials, and sound facilities. As such standards for opportunity to learn are articulated, the accountability question arises as to how to monitor and report on them. The school district articulates a means of observation in schools and classrooms in order to determine the degree of adherence to these standards (Sergiovanni et al 2003). Two aspects of this must be considered: the quality of individual teachers and the quality of the school as a whole. The control is exercised through school review process.

World War Holocaust Essay Example for Free

World War Holocaust Essay The Holocaust or The Shoah, as referred to by the Jews, was a systematic state-led persecution and genocide of the Jews and other minority groups of Europe and North Africa. It was committed during World War II by the Nazis of Germany and their collaborators (Wikipedia, â€Å"Holocaust†). This was what the Nazis considered as Endlà ¶sung der Judenfrage   or The Final Solution of the Jewish Question. Under the leadership of Adolf Hitler, about 9 to 11 million people were exterminated during this entire period. Other minorities (ie. Poles, Serbs, homosexuals, persons with mental illness, Jehovah’s Witnesses, etc†¦) who the Nazis saw as inferior or undesirable were also killed.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   It is considered by many experts as the most organized and systematic mass-killing in the history of mankind. Jews were herded into death camps and were allowed to suffer many indignities including torture and cruel medical experiments. Jews would be killed by the hundreds through poison gas, freezing or shooting. The women and the children were not spared. They were treated no less cruelly than the male adults. They were also sent to labor camps to serve as slaves to the Nazis. All these inhuman acts are based on the Anti-Semitism philosophy of Adolf Hilter. He laid down the foundations of this movement in his 1925 autobiography entitled Mein Kampf or My Struggle. According to Hitler, the Aryan race is the superior race of the world. Nazism, which followed his ideas, portrayed their interpretation of an Aryan race as the only race capable of, or with an interest in, creating and maintaining culture and civilizations, while other races are merely capable of conversion, or destruction of culture (Wikipedia, â€Å"Aryan†). Because of this belief in Aryan supremacy, the Nazis began by oppressing the Jews and other minorities through discrimination. Jews were not allowed to have jobs or were not given service in hospitals or government offices. These acts would worsen and escalate into an uncontrollable frenzy and would culminate in the infamous Final Solution. Bibliography Holocaust. Wikipedia: The Free Encyclopedia. Wikimedia Foundation. 8 June 2006 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holocaust. Aryan. Wikipedia: The Free Encyclopedia. Wikimedia Foundation. 8 June 2006 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aryan.

AIS and MIS Comparison

AIS and MIS Comparison Briefly discuss the difference between AIS and MIS.   Ã‚   MIS and AIS are all computer-based information systems that are very helpful for any organizations to keep records correctly and make the right decision for the operations. They are two different main system is an organization. The major difference is AIS and MIS provide diverse information to the organization by different transactions. AIS subsystems processing by financial transactions which are monetary transactions affect assets and equity, shown on the accounts. Whilst it also process nonfinancial transactions that directly affect the processing of financial transactions. (p.7) According to the figure 1-2, those transactions and cycles under AIS are all about economic event convert to financial transactions and expressed as numbers or figures in the accounts. Such as sold inventories, this movement will incur the revenue and equity figures changed on accounts. These kinds of changes will also affect the GL and MRS to provide information timely changed. In another hand if the customer account detail changed which is nonfinancial transaction processed by AIS, The MIS processes nonfinancial transactions that are not normally processed by traditional AIS. (p.7)  the organization normally has many departments such as production planning, inventory warehouse planning, market research, and so on. MIS is to help those different areas operate normally and provide information for further decision making. Another important difference is AIS and MIS provide information to different parties. AIS are not only providing the information for internal users but also for the external users such as suppliers, customers and auditors and so on. Especially for the auditors, AIS is help to provide correctly and legally information. MIS is mainly providing information to internal users such as the management team of the organization. In conclusion, AIS and MIS provide different information through different transactions to different parties. But there are also connections between AIS and MIS. AIS also provide the financial information to the MIS. Some movement in MIS is also affecting AIS. AIS and MIS are all important system to any organization. Briefly discuss the characteristics of information in the context of accounting information system. Information is can be defined as processed data and can help user to take further actions or make further decisions. (p.10). The characteristics of information in AIS include relevance, timeliness, accuracy, completeness, and summarization. (p.12) Relevance means relevant information for a specific purpose of the task or help manager to do further decision. For example, the main purpose of an invoice is let customer pay the right amount and know what they bought. Therefore the invoice shows the amount that customer should pay, and also shows the product name, code which customer bought. Timeliness means provide timely information. For instance, if a statement shows pay it within 15 days will get a 2% discount, if they receive this statement and information within 15 days, that will be useful, otherwise will lose the value of this information. Accuracy means avoid to provide information with major errors. For example, if a balance sheet shows the total asset is $100000, but the actual amount should be $90000, this error may cause the user make poor decisions. It could be cause by a data errors or process error. Sometimes, we have to give up the absolutely accurate to provide timely information, therefore system designer need make balance between accuracy and timeliness. Completeness means should include all the essential information for decision making or daily tasks. For example, an income statement should include the calculation of the profit or loss, and must be clearly showing the figures. Summarization means the information should summarized as the user needs. As the higher management, the more summarized information is needed. Others, the independent of the information which means the accounting activities must be separated and independent from physical resources management and preservation. In conclusion, relevance, timeliness, accuracy, completeness, and summarization are very important to obtain reliable information to the user. Reliability can determine the value of the information. (p.16) If follow those characteristic, information will be reliable and provides maximum value to the user. When developing, or selecting an accounting system, identify who should be involved and the contribution that they bring to the process. Organizations usually get the accounting system through two ways, self-developing and purchase or rent commercial software. To develop or selecting an accounting system, we need someone who understand accounting knowledge which is accountant, and someone who understand the database and network which is IT professionals. Accountant and IT professionals are all plays very important roles. But they have different contributions bring to the process. Accountant as a domain expert is a very vital role. They provide professional accounting concept and frame to the system. Such as set accounting process rules, reporting requirements, and build the internal control goals. (p.20) For example, different customers have different payment terms, sales department or credit department for some business need the delinquent accounts information from the AR department. This information will help the sales or credit department make a further decision to hold the sales of the customer or not. Accountant need set the standard to identify delinquent customer account in this case. They may set a credit amount for every customer and the system might show a message once over the amount or hold the accounts until they pay off. Accountant need determine the nature of the required information, its source, destination and the need of accounting rules.(p.20) Accountant as a system auditor is also an important role for developing or selecting the accounting system. Some public accounting firm can give advisory service of information system design and implementation, and internal control assessments for compliance with SOX. (p.21) although the accounting firm could use their auditor concepts for the advisory service, they could not be the real auditor to the company, it is no value to the organization and it is illegal under SOX legislation. IT professionals are responsible for the establishment of actual physical system. The physical system includes the database and programming for calculate and present information. IT professionals need ensure to build the accounting system work efficiently. They also play an important role for the test and maintenance of the accounting system. Once the system is selected or development is completed, they will need doing test and if any errors they need fixed the errors. System requires constant maintenance and repair to ensure the accuracy of information. Accountant and IT professionals need work together when developing or selecting an accounting system. They are all essential. Define fraud and identify and discuss three different examples to illustrate how it may arise in the workplace. In each case illustrate a strategy that may be used to mitigate its impact or occurrence. Briefly explain the COSO internal control framework. The COSO internal control framework is issued by Committee of Sponsoring Organizations of the Treadway Commission. (p.116)  It is recommended by SEC1, also is the general framework of internal control evaluation standard. The COSO framework defines internal control is affected by corporate board of directors, management and other personnel, in order to achieve operational effectiveness and efficiency, financial report reliability, the compliance of the relevant regulations and other objectives to provide a reasonable guarantee process. We can explain it from 5 different aspects, the control environment, risk assessment, information and communication, monitoring, and control activities. (p.116) Control environment is the fundamental key of the organization, it directly affect the control consciousness of the staffs. It include the integrity of the staff, professional ethics and organization structure; management of the business philosophy and management style; board of directors or the audit committee of the supervision and guidance; the allocation of authority and responsibility; the methods of performance evaluation and human resources policy. à ¯Ã‚ ¼Ã‹â€ p.116à ¯Ã‚ ¼Ã¢â‚¬ °It can be said that people and their activities are the core of enterprise, is the important factor of internal control environment, it interacts with environment. Risk assessment is to identify and analyze the relevant risks to achieve the established goals; it is the basis of risk management. Each enterprise is faced with a lot of internal and external risks, affecting the realization of business goals, such as the changes of the operating environment, new staffs, the use of new system or new technology, new product introduction, entre into a foreign market or practice of new accounting rules and so on. It is necessary to identify, analyze and manage those risks that affect the achievement of the target and manage them in timely manner. (p.118) Information and communication means that the information needed for business management must be identified, obtained and delivered in a certain form in a timely manner so that the employee can perform their duties. The accounting information includes not only internally generated information, but also external information related to business decision making and external reporting. It is important for an accounting information system whether the information is processed timely and accurately. The auditor needs to understand the transactions, accounting record, transaction processing steps, financial reporting process. (p. 118) Monitoring is the process of assessing the effectiveness of the internal control system, through continuous monitoring, independent assessment or a combination of the two to achieve the internal control system supervision. Internal control activities refer to policies and procedures that facilitate the smooth implementation of management decision-making. It includes information technology (IT) controls and physical controls. IT controls is rated to computer environment, it has two aspects, general control such as the control of database and network security and so on, and application control such as the control of accounts payable, and payroll applications and so on. Another aspect is physical control, which are human activities. It includes transaction authorization, segregation of duties, supervision, accounting records, access control, and independent verification. (p.119) COSO internal control framework is a relatively complete and systematic theory of internal control, and it put forward a lot of valuable ideas, constantly found the practical significance in practice.

Bill Gates Essay -- Essays Papers

Bill Gates Bill Gates was born on October 28, 1955. Gates and his two sisters grew up in Seattle. Their father, William H. Gates II, is a Seattle attorney. His late mother, Mary Gates, was a schoolteacher, University of Washington regent and chairwoman of United Way International. Bill Gates came from a very involved background dealing with politics and in the business industry. So he was pretty educated in the world as a young child. He also spent most of his time reading and learning about Business Industry which is what he liked. Bill went to Lakeside School for seventh grade at the age of 12. It was a very strict privates boys school. At first he seemed uncomfortable but eventually he found some friends that had some of the same interests as in Business and looking at computer companies. Most of his teachers seemed intimidnated by him and another group of older classmates initiative to figure out something called Teletype. You would type programs off-line on yellow paper tape and then put it into the tape reader, then dial up the computer and quickly feed the paper tape and run your program. There was a club called Mothers club that would have various rummage sales and got money to pay for the Teletype and also fees like using the Teletype. With the Teletype you have to pay for storage, computer fee and connection time. So he got a lot of experience with computers in school. In 1973, Gates enrolled at Harvard University. At Harvard Bill developed the pro...

Communication and Dialogue

Abstract: In this new era of globalisation wherein people from diverse culture and ethnicity have come together to work in an organisation, dialogue is indeed an important way of communication. Many researches have proved the fact that differences in culture may inculcate a difference in the thinking pattern or stem into differential analysis of a situation. In an organisation where values and growth are related  to each other, differences in opinion may lead to altercation and conflicts if not addressed well.Dialogue, a bidirectional flow of communication where emphasis is laid not only on saying but also on listening and understanding at the same time can be an useful tool in an organisation to resolve inter personal conflicts, conflicts within the department or conflicts between two different departments of the same organisation. The essay will highlight the importance of introduction of dialogue in a multicultural organisation and its use as a problem solving tool in multicultu ral organisation where cultural thinking act as an impediment among them.Also, it will review the role of dialogue in promoting organisational learning. Next it will explore some of the barriers in communication such as â€Å"Silo virus† and need for eliminations of those barriers, ending into a conclusion for the implication of dialogue in a multicultural organisation. Sequential Conversation or Unidirectional Flow of Communication versus Dialogic conversation A conversation is said to be sequential or unidirectional when there is a flow of information from the speaker to the listener (Eisenberg & Goodall, p. 27).This one way communication can be practically seen in classes where student completely rely on teachers lectures, also when managers or the instructor define the protocol of the work to the subordinates or receivers. In other words in a unidirectional or sequential communication listeners are passive and are uninvolved in constructing the ideas of the communication (Eisenberg & Goodall, p. 28)  . Traditionally communication between managers and employee were articulated as straightforward unidirectional flow of delivering management messages to employees and other constituencies (Tourish and Hargie 2009, p. ). However, dialogue provides equal opportunities to all who are involved in the communication. Everyone has the say to voice their opinion and give their feedback either in agreement or in opposition of the core matter. Dialogue in a working definition can be defined as a mindful conversation emphasising on equitable and empathetic transaction of opinions of the participants to create new opportunities for working together to produce new and innovative ideas (Eisenberg & Goodall, p. 40-45) Hence dialogue is a balance between creativity and constraints (Eisenberg & Goodall ,p. 0). Dialogue demands its participants should be able to critically reflect themselves i. e, they should be open to the fact that the perceptions made by them may no t always be accurate. â€Å"What we perceive is often based on our needs, our expectations, our projections, and, most of all, our culturally learned assumptions and categories of thought (Schein 1993,p. 33)†. Participants should be able to suspend the perceptions and feelings for some time to see the outcome of the dialogue (Schein 1993).By suspending the feelings the participants will allow the disagreements to fly off, hence will build mutual understanding and trust on each other. Higher the trust higher will be the effectiveness of the group. Participants will be open to voice their unfearful opinions, and will come up with more innovative and successful solutions. Dialogue as a problem solving tool in a multicultural organisation The definition of dialogue says that there should be equal sharing of perceptions, assumptions, thoughts and experiences to come to an radical conclusion (Schein 1993).Healthy communication connects the employee more strongly with the organisati on by eliminating the sense of isolation and dissatisfaction. Employee who communicate regularly with their managers and co-employees have a higher sense of job engagement than those who are reluctant to voice their opinion. There is a direct relation between the healthy communication, participation of the employees in decision making and growth of the organisation. Dialogue does not only mean that you are heard, but it also signifies that your voice matters in the decisions of the company.It gives a sense of belonging to the employee and burns out stress and discomfort. The organisation with the higher number of contented employee will have higher productivity both in number and innovations. â€Å"The quality of relationships with co-workers is a crucial factor in determining levels of job satisfaction† (Tourish & Hargie 2009, p. 16). Job satisfaction cannot only be guaranteed by successful completion of a task, but it involves many other vital factors too. Today when it is impossible to find an uncultured organisation, learning about the intercultural ommunication is an indispensable necessity (Crossman et al 2011, p. 57). Culture plays an prominent role in structuring human behaviour, ideas and thought process (Wood2011). Differences of thinking may lead to ambiguity at the work place which may end into conflicts. According to Ting-Toomey, the greater the difference between two cultures, the more that conflicts will arise in areas such as historical grievances, cultural world views and beliefs (Crossman et al 2011). Creating Coherence in Multicultural Organisation with dialogue Employees have different personal needs and hence different dimensions for the satisfaction.The organisation should know about the personnel needs of the employee and should work in a way to nurture good relationships among the employees (Tourish & Hargie 2009). Incorporating good communication practices such as regular group meetings, open house discussions or building new ch annels for communication sustains job engagement of the employee. Mangers should have expertise in intercultural communication skills to nurture an environment of tolerance to the ambiguity caused by incompatibility of cultural values and norms.As Brannen & Salk 1999, said working together to give fruitful result can only be achieved by compromising the ambiguity and confusion for quality issues. The practices like   an  open house group discussions  ,thought sharing and dialogues exchange with seniors and colleagues will help in bridging the gap of miscommunication and misunderstanding. Employees who have an access to information, organisation policies, new ventures and developments feel more secure and safe at work. Intercultural communications along with dialogue help in enhancing the process of organisational learning through group interaction.It helps in sharing of cultural ideas, values and beliefs. Cordial and happy relations at work place eliminate stress and burnout c aused by work pressure and thus benefits the employee with good concentration and higher thinking. Socially balanced work culture  breed  employee with better insights and hence result in collaborative thinking and exemplary innovations. However in a real business world where emphasis is laid more towards the successful completion of the task, is it realistic to preach dialogue at every stage of decision making?Is it possible for an organisation to understand the needs of every employee? Will it be correct to say that it  is the responsibility of a manager to inoculate good intercultural communication where the employees are reluctant to shift their values and paradigm? Implementing dialogue can be a laborious process for a manager. It is the Manager who bears the responsibility of accomplishing the targets with in the given time frame. Dialogue can only be successful when employees are ready to take the responsibility to change themselves, else it will only result in wastage of time.Dialogue is easy to preach in a likeminded group sharing similar values but difficult to express with those who are reluctant to change. Say for instance it is easy to teach a budding employee about the virtues of good communication. However,  the same could not be expressed to those highly experienced or talented employees who are reluctant to adapt to new changes. Also, it is difficult to bring employees out of their comfort zone and to speak up expressing their true feelings. Dialogue- the core of organisational learning Dialogue lies at the core of organizational learning, for without dialogue, individuals and groups cannot effectively exchange ideas, nor can they develop shared understanding† (Mazustis & Slawinski 2008, pg 438). Argyris said that there are two different modes of learning, Model 1 and Model II, best be summarized as single or double loop learning. He mentioned in his writing â€Å"Teaching Smart people how to learn†, highly skilled profess ional are good at single loop learning because of their vast experiences and success gained in those experiences.However, Argyris argue that it is difficult for them to admit their mistake,  and hence they adopt a defensive attitude wherein they start blaming others for the failure. Defensive reasoning can block learning. Model I learning behavior persists throughout the organization resulting in to win/lose dynamics in which individual avoid confrontation (Mazustis & Slawinski 2008). On contrast Model II which is based on open dialogue, self-reflection and double loop learning will help in bringing fundamental changes in organizational norms, priorities and behavior (Argyris and Schon1978).It is through dialogue that people share ideas with others. Integration of these ideas with others is only possible when a group has   a  common language and common thought process, which can only be built by dialogue(Mazustis & Slawinski 2008). Shared meaning can lead not only to the trans ference of knowledge, but also to the creation of new knowledge and understanding among participants (Mazustis & Slawinski 2008). Finally, the process get embedded into the organization. This process is what Crossan et al. (1999) refer to as institutionalizing. Dialogue is therefore at the core of the socio-psychological processes of the model of organizational learning (Crossan et al. , 1999)† (Mazustis & Slawinski 2008). Barriers to communication- Silos formation Advancement in technology and increase in complexity of organisation resulted in division of the organisation into different specialised departments or subunits. Employee in one department share same work language, technology and work terminology developing a subculture of its own. Different departments in an organisation work together to complete the task, failure of one may result in failure of others. Organisational effectiveness is therefore dependent on the valid communication across subculture boundaries† (Schein 1993,p. 41). Silo formation and Need to eliminate Silos Fragmentation of organisation into small departments may result in the formation of â€Å"silos† throughout the organisation. Individuals in silos share strong personnel bonds, common interests, abilities, work structure and relational bonds that differentiate them from others. Individuals in a silo interact more to each other than with the outside employees creating an atmosphere of alienation for those who are not part of the silo group.Silos act as a barrier to inter departmental flow of communication resulting in the  creation of isolation and hostility for others who are not  part of the group. Employees hesitate to co-operate with other departments thinking that the objective of their silo is different from that of other department. Interdepartmental competition may prevent the desire to transfer valuable information from one to other department. Communication breakdown can lead to errors and finger p ointing, lack of responsibilities and hence failure of the task or the department itself What is the role of a good manager in an organisation full of silos?Managers should learn to trust his team members and also should show respect their peers. Mutual trust, respect for each other structure and values will help in dissolving silos. Senior should preach the essential values of their organisation and not that of a single department. Organisation based on Hierarchical pyramid structure An organisation based on principals to maintain and respect hierarchical structure, could not support dialogue. Hierarchy do not support the idea of cross questioning your boss or voicing against the idea of your manager, it may lead to serious repercussions for the employee.Time constrain Time is again a vital factor to be considered while promoting dialogue. Every project is designed to be accomplished with in a limited time frame. Listening to every voice of the department may lead to wastage of tim e. Managers should be able to recognise the right time to implement debate and discussion instead of dialogue. Breaching the comfort zone of employee Dialogue demands empathy and tolerance to other and is a time consuming process. In this fast pace society where human beings are already over engaged with priorities it is difficult to maintain patience to listen to others.Highly experienced employee find it difficult to listen to a new employee, they do not want to change their work protocol and hesitate to adapt to new changes. It is difficult to breach the comfort zone of over experienced employees and sometimes they find it insulting too. Defensive Behaviour and lack of trust Individuals may engage into defensive routines where they hesitate to open a dialogue with the seniors fearing that may lead to some serious problems with the co-employees or the manager himself.Also, colleagues working in an organisation may feel competition with their  colleague, and thus, employee consci ously prevent flow of information to others creating a hostile environment for others. Lack of true Feedback Dialogue may be impeded by organisation norms such as the practice of only delivering good news to senior managers, and hiding distressing news. Individuals need  the  information to be able to detect and correct errors, but some organizational norms prevent such information from being discussed (Argyris and Schon, 1978). Baker et al. 2005: 425), for example, conclude that some ‘norms determine what can be said and not said, what and who is heard and not heard, who has  a  voice and who does not have  Ã‚  a  voice   who is in and who is out of the conversation’ (Mazustis & Slawinski 2008). These norms inhibit prevent knowledge from being shared openly across functional silos, divisions and levels. Conclusion Dialogue is no doubt an important tool of communication to bring changes in an organisation and to promote  a  higher degree of organisatio nal learning. Proper implementation of dialogue in an organisation will make employees more responsible to each other.It will also ensure trust, empathy, tolerance and engagement among the employees by creating a safe and secure work environment. Sharing of ideas, discussion about work and group thinking will inculcate high sense creativity and innovations. However, it is difficult to have an idealistic organisation working on the principals of dialogue. It  is a group endeavour and demands time and patience which are difficult to attain in this fast pace society. Human beings are primarily driven by their emotions and it is difficult to suspend feelings and emotions which is the demand to sustain a dialogue.Implications of dialogue are great but is difficult to practice. Books Crossman, J. , Bordia, S. & Mills, C. 2011 Business Communication : for the Global Age, McGraw-Hill, North Ryde, N. S. W. Eisenberg,M. , Goodall,H. L. & Trethewey,A. 2010, Organizational communication : bal ancing creativity and constraint, Boston : Bedford/St. Martin's Cheney,G. (ed. ) 2011, Organizational Communication in an Age of Globalization : Issues, Reflection ; Practices, 2nd edition, Long Grove, Ill. : Waveland Press Cottrell, S. 011, Critical thinking skills : developing effective analysis and argument, Houndmills, Hampshire, UK : Palgrave Macmillan Ferraro, G. P. ; Briody, E. K. 2013, The cultural dimension of global business,7th ed. , Pearson, Boston, pp. 29-65. Hargie,O. ; Tourish,D. (ed). 2009, Auditing organizational communication : a handbook of research, theory and practice ,Imprint East Sussex : New York, NY Walker, R. 2011, Strategic management communication for leaders, Mason, Ohio : South-Western Cengage Learning Wood,J. 2011, Communication mosaics : an introduction to the field of communication,Boston, MA : WadsworthE journals Amy,H. 2008, ‘Leaders as facilitators of individual and organizational learning’ , Leadership ; Organization Development Jour nal, vol. 29, no. 3, pp. 212-234 Argyris 1991, ‘Teaching smart people how to learn’, Harvard Business Review, vol. 69,no. 3,pp. 99-100 Argyris, C. and Schon, D. (1978), ‘Organizational Learning: A theory of action perspective’ Bloor,G. 1999, ‘Organisational culture: organisational learning and total quality management’ , Australian Health Review, Vol 22, no 3 Groysberg, B. ; Slind, M. 2012, ‘Leadership is a conversation', Harvard Business Review, 90(6):76-84. Mazutis,D. amp;Slawinski,N. 2008, ‘Leading organizational learning through authentic dialogue’ , Richard Ivey School of Business,The University of Western Ontario, Canada, Vol 39, pp. 437-456 Schein,E. 1993, ‘On dialogue, culture, and organizational learning’ ,Organisational Dynamics, Vol. 22, no. 2, pp. 40-51 Website Forbes, John Kotter, viewed on 26 March 2013, ;http://www. forbes. com/sites/johnkotter/2011/05/03/breaking-down-silos/;. Matthew Moore 2011, viewed 26 March 2013, ;http://www. improvementandinnovation. com/features/article/breaking-down-organisational-silos-why-its-important-collaboration-quality-and-gro/;.

Enterprise Architecture as Strategy Essay

Technology is shifting at a faster rate resulting in development of new methods that assist in completion of certain technological demand. This has given birth to different enterprise architecture frameworks that fulfill the requirements of day-to-day activities. Architecture is a framework of guidelines, principles, models, standards and strategies that directs, construction and development of business process, design and information and resources through enterprise. Hence, enterprise architecture is a blueprint, which defines the structure and operation of a given organization (Fowler & Rice 2003). Thus, a foundation in which an organization can determine how to achieve current and future aims. There are many types of EA frameworks with specified capabilities. Some of these frameworks include ToGAF, Zachman, FEAF, DoDAF and EAP. The aim of this paper is to analyze ToGAF, and analyze how it compares with other EA frameworks. The Open Group Architecture Framework (TOGAF) is an enterprise architecture framework, which approaches the development of enterprise information architecture through design, planning, governance and implementation. This EA framework employs four pillars to achieve its goals: Application, Business, Technology and Data. Before the architect plans for current and future aims of the organization, they are provided with foundation architectures that form the basis that they will use for the new development. The four pillars play a crucial role in ensuring that the process is successful. Business architecture allows the definition of governance, business strategy, the organization and any other important processes of the given organization. Applications architecture allows the provision of the blueprint for the specific application to enable the interaction, deployment and create relationships between the important business processes of a given organization. Data architecture describes the structure of the given organization and defines physical and logical data assets that are in the given organization. Technical architecture defines the software, hardware and network infrastructure that is in place and the required technical resources to accomplish the mission in question. The original aim of the TOGAF was to design and develop technology architecture for a given business entity. However, the framework has evolved becoming a methodology that is used to analyze overall business architecture. This resulted into splitting of the enterprise methodology into two parts: Architecture Development Method (ADM) and Enterprise continuum. The ADM ensures that the enterprise architecture meets the requirements of the organization in terms of business needs and information technology needs. Its ability to be tailored ensures that organizational needs are factored in each of the different execution steps of the architecture planning process. The process is usually cyclic and iterative because the entire process is split into phases. The ADM supports nine phases; the first is the preliminary and the second to the ninth ranges from Phase A to Phase H. Each phase requirements are checked and ensured that it fulfills its basic needs. For example, Phase C combines Application and Data architecture and phase B and C ensure that the clarity of the information architecture is achieved (Lankhorst 2005). For the ADM to be successful, Enterprise Continuum comes handy. Generally, the Enterprise Continuum can be seen as a ‘virtual repository’ of all the assets of the architecture that is in an organization. These assets may include architectural patterns, architectural models, architecture descriptions and other important artifacts. Enterprise Continuum brings together Solutions and Architecture Continuum. The Architecture Continuum structures the re-usable architecture assets, which brings together representations, rules, relationships of information systems that are available to the enterprise. The Solutions Continuum defines the blocks that are used by the Architecture Continuum. This then allows the architectural building models and blocks that assists building the architecture design and eliminates ambiguity during analysis and implementation of the process. Usually there is a relationship between the different EA frameworks in terms of how it operates and ways that enables it to accomplish its duties. Zachman Framework and TOGAF ADM part share some common features. ADM mapping in relation to the Zachman Framework supports a correlation. The Zachman Framework has a well established and comprehensive taxonomy that supports various models, viewpoints and other important artifacts, which an enterprise may consider developing as a phase of the EA (White 2007). The Zachman Framework covers the 30 cells, but the TOGAF does not cover all the cells. However, it is possible for the TOGAF to develop viewpoints to accomplish aspects of Zachman Framework. Nevertheless, there are some viewpoints that are supported by TOGAF, which are not included in the Zachman Framework. For example, the missing viewpoints include manageability and security. The purpose of the architecture is to define viewpoints, an aspect that is supported by the TOGAF ADM but lacks in Zachman Framework. Zachman Framework vertical axis provides a source of potential viewpoints while the horizontal may provide generic taxonomy concerns. Thus, the Zachman Framework does not have means for processes for conformant views or developing viewpoints. Hence, it does not employ a perspective that is shown by TOGAF’s ADM. FEAF structure resembles with TOGAF because it is portioned into Data, Business, Technology and Applications Architectures. Thus, it contains guidance that is analogous to TOGAF architecture and its architectural viewpoints and perspectives. However, the rows that are in the FEAF matrix do not directly map to TOGAF structure. However, the mapping of ADM to Zachman Framework has some correlation between TOGAF and FEAF. Hence, the columns that are in the FEAF matrix correspond to the three architecture domains that are supported by TOGAF; the fourth TOGAF domain covers business architecture that lacks in the FEAF structure. Enterprise Architecture Planning (EAP) is a framework that brings together Applications, Information and Technology Architectures in fulfilling the requirements of architecture. Thus, it shares many concepts with TOGAF because the aim of EAP is to form blueprints for architectures to solve business problems. Moreover, EAP supports the nine phases that are supported by the TOGAF (White 2007). The first three phases in the EAP (Business Architecture) maps to the Phase B of TOGAF ADM. Baseline Description, which is the step 4 in EAP maps to Phases C and D of TOGAF ADM. These are some of the basic features that both frameworks share. However, EAP does not support taxonomy of various views and viewpoints when compared to the TOGAF architecture. Department of Defense Architecture Framework (DoDAF) defines the architecture systems into consistent and complementary views. It defines a structure and mechanisms that help in understanding, visualizing and assimilating the complexities and broad scope of a given architecture design through tabular, graphic and textual means. Thus, it shares minimal aspect with TOGAF. In fact, TOGAF focus on the methodology of architecture in terms of â€Å"how to† without bringing into consideration architecture description constructs. This perspective is different when it comes to the DODAF architecture. DoDAF main functionality focus on the architecture through a given set of views without any specified methodology, a perspective that is different from TOGAF, which has a specific methodology (Bernus & Fox 2005). ADM guides the way that TOGAF operates, an aspect that is less exhibited in the DoDAF. This is because the purpose of architecture determines description of use and supports a well tailored process to fulfill the requirements of the EA (McGovern & Ambler 2003). DODAF requires that all information, analysis and products to build should be put forefront before building the architecture. However, TOGAF specify certain requirements that should be in place and grouped into the four pillars. DoDAF supports three â€Å"views† System, Operational and Technical while the TOGAF support four views. However, â€Å"views† in DoDAF differs from the view that is seen in the TOGAF. Deliverables and artifacts that are defined in the DoDAF have no corresponding parts in the TOGAF ADM. This is because DoDAF goes deeper in determining details of the specific architecture. Thus, DoDAF are at the system design level rather than in TOGAF, which is in the architecture level. Nevertheless, the level of detail can be included in the ADM especially at Phase B, C and D of the TOGAF. Enterprise Architecture plays an important role in ensuring that the business strategy and the requirements of a certain process are achieved. TOGAF approach is useful in achieving a business-oriented process through a well defined methodology. TOGAF have common features and minor differences with other EA such as the Zachman, FEAF, DoDAF and EAP. The view and viewpoint that is incorporated by the TOGAF ensures that the requirements of the organization are achieved. Thus, TOGAF plays an important role, which is envisaged by other Enterprise Architecture Framework. It fulfills the requirements that it is assigned, however, fulfills it different from the other EA frameworks. References Bernus, P. & Fox, M. (2005). Knowledge Sharing in the Integrated Enterprise: Interoperability Strategies for the Enterprise Architect. London: Birkhauser. The book addresses Enterprise Architectures and Enterprise Integration in a way that makes it easy to utilize Enterprise Models and other Modeling Tools. It brings together the different models and forms of a framework into fulfilling a requirement. Thus, it develops interchange models between the given modeling tools, maintain its interdependencies and knowledge on the re-use of enterprise models. The authors also provide means towards the achievement of the ISO9001:2000. The book brings into consideration Design of Information Infrastructure Systems for Manufacturing (DIISM’04) and International Conference on Enterprise Integration and Modeling Technology (ICEIMT’04). Fowler, M. & Rice, D. (2003). Patterns of Enterprise Application Architecture. New York: Addison-Wesley Publishers. The book provides proven solutions to the problems that are experienced by information system developers. The book utilizes code example in terms of C+ and Java. The book turns the problems that are associated with enterprise applications developers into a new strategy that eliminates these problems and ensures that the developers are in an environment that they can easily embrace. The authors’ helps professionals to understand complex issues associated with architecture. The book shows that architecture is crucial in completion of application development and multi-user environment. In addition, the book provides patterns and context in EA that enables the reader to have proper means to make the right decisions. Lankhorst, M. (2005). Enterprise Architecture at Work: Modeling, Communication, and Analysis. New York: Springer. The authors bring clearly the complexities that are associated with architectural domains. It brings into consideration description of the enterprise architecture and fulfillment into an organization in terms of processes, structure, systems, applications and techniques. The book brings into consideration description of components and unambiguous specification to allow for a logical modeling language. They utilize their skills in ensuring that the architects have concrete skills that fulfill the architectural practice. It also gives means that allows communication between stakeholders that are involved in these architectures. The authors also provide means to assess both qualitative impact and quantitative aspects of the given architectures. Modeling language that is utilized has been used in real-life cases. McGovern, J. & Ambler, S. (2003). A practical Guide to Enterprise Architecture. New York: Prentice Hall PTR. The authors of the book have hands-on experience in solving real-world problems for major corporations. The book contains guidelines that assist the architects to make sense of the systems, data, services, software, methodologies, and product lines. The book also provides explanation of the theory and its application to the real world business needs. Perks, C. & Beveridge, T. (2003). Guide to Enterprise IT Architecture. New York: Springer Publishers. The book brings into consideration different Enterprise Architecture frameworks. The authors’ clearly explains development of a modeling concept through various technical architecture, e-business and gap analysis. Moreover, the book brings into consideration operating systems and software engineering principles. Moreover, the book relates EA with service instances, distributed computing, application software and enterprise application integration. Ross, J. & Weill, P. (2006). Enterprise Architecture as Strategy: Creating a Foundation for Business Execution. Chicago: Harvard Business Press. The aim of EA is to define the requirements of an organization in terms of job roles, standardized tasks, infrastructure, system and data. Moreover, the book also gives guidelines in the way that organizations will compete in a digitalized world providing managers with means to make decisions and realize visions that they had planned. Thus, the book explains EA vital role in fulfilling the execution of a given business strategy. The book provides thoughtful case examples, clear frameworks, and a proven and effective way of achieving EA. Scheer, A. & Kruppke, H. (2006). Agility by ARIS Business Process Management. New York: Springer Publishers. The authors’ brings into consideration the benefits that are associated with utilizing of varies EA frameworks. It brings into consideration the various differences that are seen in each EA framework. Moreover, the authors explores the benefits that will result if a given framework is utilized in a given business strategy. Thus, the book is business oriented with EA playing an important role. Schekkerman, J. (2003). How to Survive in the Jungle of Enterprise Architecture Frameworks, 2nd Ed. New York: Trafford Publishers. This book defines the role that is played by enterprise Architecture Frameworks bringing clearly the main difference between the common Enterprise Architecture Frameworks. This book provides the right procedures and means that can allow selection of the right Enterprise Architecture Framework. The book further gives the history and overview of various Enterprise Architecture Frameworks and the capabilities that the specified Enterprise Architecture. Some common features of EA that the book explores are principles, purpose, scope, structure, and compliance and guidance to ensure that the right EA is chosen. Wagter, R. & Steenbergen, M. (2005). Dynamic Enterprise Architecture: How to Make it work. New York: John Wiley and Sons Publications. The authors of the book present a way towards EA that enables organizations to achieve the objectives of their business. The book focuses on governance of the IT organization, advice and strategies provide tangible tools that assist in the achievement of the goals of the organization. If all the directives are followed the organization will achieve its goals at a faster speed. White, J. (2007). Managing Information in the Public Sector. New York: M. E. Sharpe. The book covers the basis of information technology, political and managerial issues that revolve the EA. This book is specifically written for the public and it covers all problems that are related to IT and the public.